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Ruby | |
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Ruby is a reflective, dynamic, object-oriented programming language. It combines syntax inspired by Perl with Smalltalk-like object-oriented features, and also shares some features with Python, Lisp, Dylan and CLU. Ruby is a single-pass interpreted language. Its main implementation is free software.
History The language was created by Yukihiro "Matz" Matsumoto, who started working on Ruby on February 24, 1993, and released it to the public in 1995. "Ruby" was named after a colleague's birthstone. As of March 2007, the latest stable version is 1.8.6. Ruby 1.9 (with some major changes) is also in development. Performance differences between the current Ruby implementation and other more entrenched programming languages has led to the development of several virtual machines for Ruby. These include JRuby, an attempt to port Ruby to the Java platform, and Rubinius, an interpreter modeled after self-hosting Smalltalk virtual machines. The main developers have thrown their weight behind the virtual machine provided by the YARV project, which was merged into the Ruby source tree on 31 December 2006, and will be released as Ruby 2.0. Philosophy The language's creator has said that Ruby is designed for programmer productivity and fun, following the principles of good user interface design. He stresses that systems design needs to emphasize human, rather than computer, needs :“ Often people, especially computer engineers, focus on the machines. They think, "By doing this, the machine will run faster. By doing this, the machine will run more effectively. By doing this, the machine will something something something." They are focusing on machines. But in fact we need to focus on humans, on how humans care about doing programming or operating the application of the machines. We are the masters. They are the slaves. ” Ruby is said to follow the principle of least surprise (POLS), meaning that the language should behave in such a way as to minimize confusion for experienced users. Matz has said his primary design goal was to make a language that he himself enjoyed using, by minimizing programmer work and possible confusion. He has said he hadn't applied the principle of least surprise to the design of Ruby, but nevertheless the phrase has come to be closely associated with the Ruby programming language. The phrase has itself been a source of surprise, as novice users may take it to mean that Ruby's behaviors try to closely match behaviors familiar from other languages. In a May 2005 discussion on the comp.lang.ruby newsgroup, Matz attempts to distance Ruby from POLS, explaining that since any design choice will be surprising to someone, he uses a personal standard in evaluating surprise. If that personal standard remains consistent there will be few surprises for those familiar with the standard. Matz defined it this way in an interview:“ Everyone has an individual background. Someone may come from Python, someone else may come from Perl, and they may be surprised by different aspects of the language. Then they come up to me and say, 'I was surprised by this feature of the language, so Ruby violates the principle of least surprise.' Wait. Wait. The principle of least surprise is not for you only. The principle of least surprise means principle of least my surprise. And it means the principle of least surprise after you learn Ruby very well. For example, I was a C++ programmer before I started designing Ruby. I programmed in C++ exclusively for two or three years. And after two years of C++ programming, it still surprised me. ” Semantics Ruby is object-oriented: every bit of data is an object, even classes and types that many other languages designate as primitives (such as integers, booleans, and "nil"). Every function is a method. Named values (variables) always designate references to objects, not the objects themselves. Ruby supports inheritance with dynamic dispatch, mixins and singleton methods (belonging to, and defined for, a single instance rather than being defined on the class). Though Ruby does not support multiple inheritance, classes can import modules as mixins. Procedural syntax is supported, but all methods defined outside of the scope of a particular object are actually methods of the Object class. Since this class is parent to every other class, the changes become visible to all classes and objects. Ruby has been described as a multi-paradigm programming language: it allows you to program procedurally (defining functions/variables outside classes makes them part of the root, 'self' Object), with object orientation (everything is an object) or functionally (it has anonymous functions, closures, and continuations; statements all have values, and functions return the last evaluation). It has support for introspection, reflection and meta-programming, as well as support for threads. Ruby features dynamic typing, and supports parametric polymorphism. According to the Ruby FAQ , "If you like Perl, you will like Ruby and be right at home with its syntax. If you like Smalltalk, you will like Ruby and be right at home with its semantics. If you like Python, you may or may not be put off by the huge difference in design philosophy between Python and Ruby/Perl." Features object-oriented four levels of variable scope: global, class, instance, and local exception handling iterators and closures (based on passing blocks of code) native, Perl-like regular expressions at the language level operator overloading automatic garbage collecting highly portable cooperative multi-threading on all platforms using green threads DLL/shared library dynamic loading on most platforms introspection, reflection and meta-programming large standard library supports dependency injection continuations and generators (examples in RubyGarden: continuations and generators) Ruby currently lacks full support for Unicode, though it has partial support for UTF-8. Interaction The Ruby official distribution also includes "irb", an interactive command-line interpreter which can be used to test code quickly. A session with this interactive program might be: $ irb irb(main):001:0> puts "Hello, World" Hello, World => nil irb(main):002:0> 1+2 => 3 Syntax The syntax of Ruby is broadly similar to Perl and Python. Class and method definitions are signaled by keywords. In contrast to Perl, variables are not obligatorily prefixed with a sigil. When used, the sigil changes the semantics of scope of the variable. The most striking difference from C and Perl is that keywords are typically used to define logical code blocks, without braces (i.e., pair of { and }). Line breaks are significant and taken as the end of a statement; a semicolon may be equivalently used. Unlike Python, indentation is not significant. One of the significant improvements over Python and Perl is Ruby's ability to keep its variables private to the class and only expose them through accessor methods (attr_writer, attr_reader, etc). These methods, unlike other languages like C++ or Java, can be written with a single line of code. As invocation of these methods does not require the use of parenthesis, it is trivial to change an instance variable into a a full function, without modifying a single line of code or having to do any refactoring. See the examples section for samples of code demonstrating Ruby syntax. Gotchas and possible surprises Some features that differ notably from languages such as C or Perl: Names that begin with a capital letter are treated as constants, so local variables should begin with a lowercase letter. To denote floating point numbers, one must follow with a zero digit (99.0) or an explicit conversion (99.to_f). It is insufficient to append a dot (99.) because numbers are susceptible to method syntax. Boolean evaluation of non-boolean data is strict: 0, "" and [] are all evaluated to true. In C, the expression 0 ? 1 : 0 evaluates to 0 (i.e. false). In Ruby, however, it yields 1, as all numbers evaluate to true; only nil and false evaluate to false. A corollary to this rule is that Ruby methods by convention — for example, regular-expression searches — return numbers, strings, lists, or other non-false values on success, but nil on failure (e.g., mismatch). This convention is also used in Smalltalk, where only the special objects true and false can be used in a boolean expression. Versions prior to 1.9 lack a character data type (compare to C, which provides type char for characters). This may cause surprises when slicing strings: "abc"[0] yields 97 (an integer, representing the ASCII code of the first character in the string); to obtain "a" use "abc"[0,1] (a substring of length 1) or "abc"[0].chr. In addition, some issues with the language itself are commonly raised: In terms of speed, Ruby's performance is inferior to that of many compiled languages (as is any interpreted language) and other major scripting languages such as Python and Perl[6]. However, in future releases (current revision: 1.9), Ruby will be bytecode compiled to be executed on YARV (Yet Another Ruby VM). Currently, Ruby's memory footprint for the same operations is better than Perl's and Python's. Omission of parentheses around method arguments may lead to unexpected results if the methods take multiple parameters. Note that the Ruby developers have stated that omission of parentheses on multi-parameter methods may be disallowed in future Ruby versions. Much existing literature, however, encourages parenthesis omission for single-argument methods. Unlike Python, Ruby doesn't have a syntax for named arguments in function invocation (calling a function by some_function(y=4, x=5) simply assigns 4 and 5 to the local variables y and x). This is easily and frequently emulated by passing hashes: some_function(:y => 4, :x => 5), however, and extracting the arguments by name inside the function, similar to Perl. A list of "gotchas" may be found in Hal Fulton's book The Ruby Way, 2nd ed (ISBN 0-672-32884-4), Section 1.5. A similar list in the 1st edition pertained to an older version of Ruby (version 1.6), some problems of which have been fixed in the meantime. retry, for example, now works with while, until, and for, as well as iterators. Examples Classic Hello world example: puts "Hello World!" Some basic Ruby code: # Everything, including a literal, is an object, so this works: -199.abs # 199 "ruby is cool".length # 12 "Rick".index("c") # 2 "Nice Day Isn't It?".split(//).uniq.sort.join # " '?DINaceinsty" Collections Constructing and using an array: a = [1, 'hi', 3.14, 1, 2, [4, 5]] a[2] # 3.14 a.reverse # [[4, 5], 2, 1, 3.14, 'hi', 1] a.flatten.uniq # [1, 'hi', 3.14, 2, 4, 5] Constructing and using a hash: hash = {:water => 'wet', :fire => 'hot'} puts hash[:fire] # Prints: hot hash.each_pair do |key, value| # Or: hash.each do |key, value| puts "#{key} is #{value}" end # Prints: water is wet # fire is hot hash.delete_if {|key, value| key == :water} # Deletes :water => 'wet' Blocks and iterators The two syntaxes for creating a code block: { puts "Hello, World!" } # Note the { braces } do puts "Hello, World!" end Parameter-passing a block to be a closure: # In an object instance variable (denoted with '@'), remember a block. def remember(&a_block) @block = a_block end # Invoke the above method, giving it a block that takes a name. remember {|name| puts "Hello, #{name}!"} # When the time is right (for the object) -- call the closure! @block.call("John") # => "Hello, John!" Returning closures from a method: def create_set_and_get(initial_value=0) # Note the default value of 0 closure_value = initial_value return Proc.new {|x| closure_value = x}, Proc.new { closure_value } end setter, getter = create_set_and_get setter.call(21) getter.call # => 21 Yielding the flow of program control to a block which was provided at calling time: def use_hello yield "hello" end # Invoke the above method, passing it a block. use_hello {|string| puts string} # => 'hello' Iterating over enumerations and arrays using blocks: array = [1, 'hi', 3.14] array.each {|item| puts item} # => 1 # => hi # => 3.14 (3..6).each {|num| puts num} # => 3 # => 4 # => 5 # => 6 A method such as inject() can accept both a parameter and a block. Inject iterates over each member of a list, performing some function on while retaining an aggregate. For example: [1,3,5].inject(10) {|sum, element| sum + element} # => 19 On the first pass, the block receives 10 (the argument to inject) as sum, and 1 (the first element of the array) as element, This returns 11. 11 then becomes sum on the next pass, which is added to 3 to get 14. 14 is then added to 5, to finally return 19. Blocks work with many built-in methods: File.open('file.txt', 'w') do |file| # 'w' denotes "write mode". file.puts 'Wrote some text.' end # File is automatically closed here File.readlines('file.txt').each do |line| puts line end # => Wrote some text. Using an enumeration and a block to square the numbers 1 to 10: (1..10).collect {|x| x*x} # => [1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100] Classes The following code defines a class named Person. In addition to 'initialize', the usual constructor to create new objects, it has two methods: one to override the <=> comparison operator (so Array#sort can sort by age) and the other to override the to_s method (so Kernel#puts can format its output). Here, "attr_reader" is an example of meta-programming in Ruby: "attr_accessor" defines getter and setter methods of instance variables, "attr_reader" only getter methods. Also, the last evaluated statement in a method is its return value, allowing the omission of an explicit 'return'. class Person def initialize(name, age) @name, @age = name, age end def <=>(person) @age <=> person.age end def to_s "#{@name} (#{@age})" end attr_reader :name, :age end group = [ Person.new("John", 20), Person.new("Markus", 63), Person.new("Ash", 16) ] puts group.sort.reverse The above prints three names in reverse age order: Markus (63) John (20) Ash (16) [edit] Exceptions An exception is raised with a raise call: raise An optional message can be added to the exception: raise "This is a message" You can also specify which type of exception you want to raise: raise ArgumentError, "Illegal arguments!" Exceptions are handled by the rescue clause. Such a clause can catch exceptions that inherit from StandardError: begin # Do something rescue # Handle exception end Note that it is a common mistake to attempt to catch all exceptions with a simple rescue clause. To catch all exceptions one must write: begin # Do something rescue Exception # Handle exception end Or particular exceptions: begin # ... rescue RuntimeError # handling end Finally, it is possible to specify that the exception object be made available to the handler clause: begin # ... rescue RuntimeError => e # handling, possibly involving e end Alternatively, the most recent exception is stored in the magic global $!. More examples More sample Ruby code is available as algorithms in the following articles: Exponentiating by squaring Ruby associative arrays Implementations Ruby has two main implementations: the official Ruby interpreter, which is the most widely used, and JRuby, a Java-based implementation. Operating systems Ruby is available for the following operating systems: Most flavors of Unix Linux DOS Microsoft Windows 95/98/XP/NT/2000/2003/Vista Mac OS X BeOS Amiga MorphOS Acorn RISC OS OS/2 Syllable Symbian OS Other ports may also exist. Licensing terms The Ruby interpreter and libraries are distributed disjointedly (dual licensed) under the free and open source licenses GPL and Ruby License . Repositories and libraries The Ruby Application Archive (RAA), as well as RubyForge, serve as repositories for a wide range of Ruby applications and libraries, containing more than two thousand items. Although the number of applications available does not match the volume of material available in the Perl or Python community, there are a wide range of tools and utilities which serve to foster further development in the language. RubyGems has become the standard package manager for Ruby libraries. It is very similar in purpose to Perl's CPAN, although its usage is more like apt-get. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_(language) - more information |
Array at_exit autoload binding caller catch chomp chop eof eval exec exit Float fork getc global_variables gsub Integer iterator lambda load local_variables loop open p pipe printf putc raise rand readline readlines require select sleep split sprintf srand str String sub syscall system test throw trace_var trap ungetc untrace_var |
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The National Science Foundation (NSF) is pleased to announce the selection of New York University's Subhash Khot, an associate professor at the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, to receive its 2010 Alan T. Waterman Award. Considered the NSF's most prestigious honorary award since its establishment in 1975, this honor is given annually to an outstanding researcher under the age of 36 in any field of science and engineering supported by NSF. The honor includes a grant of ...
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